■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■(6) Tendency to favor law graduates as all-rounders and Academic Cliques Another inequality that has been pointed out since the prewar period is the difference in personnel management between administrative (Jimu-kan) and technical (Gi-kan) employees. Administrative employees tend to have liberal arts backgrounds (law, economics, etc.), while technical employees tend to have scientific backgrounds. Criticism has persisted that technical employees are at a disadvantage in terms of promotion compared to administrative employees. There are few management positions available for technical employees, and the number of administrative vice-ministerial level positions for them has been limited to ministries such as the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.(7) Re-employment called “Amakudari” The Amakudari (literally “descent from heaven” – in other words, “golden parachute”) is a practice in which the ministries and agencies take care of the re-employment of retiring public employees. It has long been criticized for several reasons. One is that the salary and retirement benefits are higher and more favorable than private sector re-employment. The more successful a public employee, the better the conditions of their re-employment. Moreover, there were cases of retirees earning training over several decades. This closed career system is characterized by entrance sorting of Careers and Non-Careers (Iriguchisenbetsu). The disparity in promotion between Careers and Non-Careers had often been criticized as unfair and a remnant of pre-war status discrimination between the Emperor’s officials and other employees, since it was based on a one-time selection at the time of recruitment rather than on an evaluation of their abilities and performance as public employees. Public employees who pass the most difficult recruitment exams were called “Careers” and were promoted at a faster rate than Non-Careers, moving every year or two and being coached to become excellent ‘generalists’ through experience in a variety of positions under the direction of the minister’s secretariat. Personnel management placed great emphasis on the year of entry into the ministry, and contemporary Careers were promoted side by side in friendly competition until they reached the position of division director in their 40s. Due to the limited number of positions available at the division director level and above, those who could not be promoted were forced to retire early and moved into the private sector, etc. This personnel practice is called “up or out”. When an administrative vice minister, the ultimate winner of the competition, was promoted, the rest of their contemporaries (and their predecessor, if they remained) retired from their positions. Non-Careers, on the other hand, were often recruited locally and spent more time moving within a narrower range than Careers to become “specialists” in their respective fields. Their promotions were slow, and even the most successful rose only to the level of division director in the main ministry, with none becoming an administrative vice minister. Underlying this inequality is the legal universalism associated with academic cliques. Since the prewar days of the Emperor’s officials, the cadets and executive officials known as the “Kobun Gumi”6 were predominantly graduates of the Tokyo Imperial University Law School. Although the Tokyo Imperial University Law School was originally established as a training school for bureaucrats and was exempt from examinations in the early years, even after the war, many of the successful Careers officials were graduates of the University of Tokyo, Faculty of Law. It should be noted that the University of Tokyo has always ranked first in terms of the number of students passing the career track examination, both before and after World War II, and that the legal category still has the largest number of recruits in the career track examination for university graduates.13
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