With the launch of the PS21, policies were introduced aimed at addressing the rapid economic and population growth in Singapore, as well as ameliorating the effects of urbanization and congestion. The government converted various departments into autonomous agencies such as the Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore (IRA), the Public Works Department (PWD) and the Land Transport Authority (LTA) (Haque, 2009). These AAs enjoy substantial discretion in prioritizing their programmes, apportioning financial and other resources, and delivering services (Sarker, 2006). This gave the departments the managerial authority and operational flexibility to test out new policies and innovative solutions without being encumbered by overwhelming bureaucracy. It was also recognized that agencies can no longer work in silos and need to embark on different inter-organisational arrangements to implement effective initiatives and deliver quality services. Through the rapid containment of the 2003 severe acute respiratory syndrome (“SARS”) outbreak, Singapore learnt the value of inter-organisational collaborations (Lee, 2018). The SARS crisis was a showcase of Singapore multi-agencies’ collaborative efforts in the efficient and effective control of the disease in the “areas of information communication technology, epidemic monitoring and track, epidemic resource recruitment and allocation and community empowerment” (Lai & Tan, 2012; Lai, 2012). The SARS crisis was a black swan for Singapore and had severely disrupted the Singapore economy, leading to a contraction and quarter-long recession in 2003 (Ho,2012; Taleb, 2007). The government recognized that other black swans might surprise Singapore again and a single agency may no longer be adequate or able to implement the needed policies or programs on its own as the issues faced by the country has become more complex and multi-faceted (Neo & Chen, 2007). Complexity also gives rise to wicked problems that have no immediate or obvious solutions (Ho, 2012; O’Toole L. J., 1997). Consequently, “New structures and processes are required for synergizing across many agencies to achieve integrated policy outcomes, therefore “different configurations of agencies are needed depending on the nature and complexity of the policy concerns” (Neo & Chen 2007:413). More horizontal structures such as inter-ministry committees or cross-agency teams have been formed to address these wicked problems which include climate change, aging society, population growth, counter-terrorism efforts and various social issues (Ho, 2012).Singapore’s rapid transformation from being a poor third world country in 1959 to a first world nation in 2000 has attracted a great deal of attention universally. Since independence, Singapore has undergone a remarkable transformation through a combination of strong leadership, good governance and pragmatic policies (Lee, Ma and Zhou, 2017). As the country reached a level of prosperity, stable economic growth and its income per head being one of the highest in the world and achieving world-class standard of health care, education, housing and infrastructure, there is recognition that its commitment to meritocracy should be integrated with broader social values such as compassion, humility, and regard for the poor. The meritocratic approach has often been criticised as a system that breeds elitism due to its over emphasis on individual effort which can engender a hyper-competitive and individualistic mindset (Young 1958; Tan 2008). Especially after the results from the 2011 general election (GE), which revealed a growing voice of the public, wanting their needs to be addressed that led to the incumbent PAP receiving the lowest-ever electoral results, facing an unprecedented outpouring of discontentment towards rising housing prices and influx of migrants (Guo & Phua 2014; Lee, Ma & Zhou 2017). Although they won the election, the PAP came to realize that they had neglected an intimate understanding of the needs of the customers from their point of view. At the swearing-in ceremony of the GE2011 cabinet, Prime Minister Lee announced, “The Government will engage all segments of society—young and old, students, workers and retirees. We will reach out online and in the real world. We will listen carefully to different voices, understand the day-to-day difficulties and strains facing Singaporeans, address their concerns and be open to inputs on what Government can do better. Realistically, we cannot fulfill every request, or accept every suggestion. But by engaging Singaporeans in an inclusive dialogue on making policies and governing Singapore, we can solve our problems better, and shape our new Singapore together.” (Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at the GE2011 Swearing-in Ceremony)130towards citizens.
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