■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■14(1) Enactment of the National Public Service Ethics Act In postwar Japan, public trust in the public service was relatively high, and the public service was a popular profession. In the 1990s, when the Ministry of Finance, which was considered the most powerful ministry, was exposed for excessive business entertainment, distrust of public officials increased dramatically. This issue led to the enactment of the National Public Service Ethics Act in 1999, which prohibits the acceptance of entertainment or gifts of money or goods from interested companies and requires compliance with standards of ethical conduct that do not raise public suspicions about the fairness of public administration.(2) Consideration of Reforms in the Public Service System Study Council Around the time a series of scandals were uncovered, it was widely recognized that the entire public administration was several hundred million yen after retirement because they repeatedly re-employed themselves at different corporations with severance pay every few years. The second reason is that corporations that accept retired public employees may receive discretionary contracts for government work, which could become a hotbed of collusion between the public and private sectors. The third reason was that in some cases, corporations with little necessity were created to accept retired public employees, and government money flowed to them, wasting taxpayer money.suffering from institutional fatigue due to its inability to adapt to new socioeconomic conditions. On the other hand, Amakudari had benefits within both the public and private sectors. The public service system did not have a mandatory retirement system until 19857, and it was necessary to maintain organizational renewal by combining early recommended retirement with re-employment. Even after the mandatory retirement age of 60 was introduced, there was still a need to provide for the re-employment of Careers who lost the competition for promotion and retired at around 50. For talented Non-Careers who were dissatisfied with their promotions, Amakudari had some effect in alleviating their dissatisfaction by helping them find new jobs with favorable conditions. Moreover, even though they were paid less as public employees, the fact that they could earn more after being re-employed was a plus for attracting the best talent in the labor market. In the private sector, the benefits of accepting retired public employees as a pipeline to regulatory agencies were not small. The Amakudari was not completely free, and prior approval from the NPA was required for re-employment within two years of retirement in a corporation closely related to the duties performed during the five years prior to retirement. Therefore, it was common for retirees to work for the first two years in a semi-private corporation, which did not require prior approval from the NPA, and then move to a private corporation. The ministries and agencies took care of and coordinated the re-employment of retired alumni, a process that was repeated after their retirement. Despite strong criticism, a total ban was not possible because public employees also have the freedom to choose their professions under the constitution. Since 1979, successive cabinets have made cabinet decisions to try and curb Amakudari, but to no avail.3� Reform of the National Public Service System since the 1990s The national public service system, created by post-war reforms, has continued without major change for more than half a century. Since the 1990s, however, several reforms have been implemented in response to the need to reform the public service system to make it more responsive to the changing times.
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